Research Publications 2016

Possible implications of ‘Brexit’ for transport and water policy
The Department for Infrastructure (DfI) and its arms-length-bodies maintain and develop infrastructure and services that support economic and social activity in Northern Ireland. This includes our water and sewerage networks, rivers and flood defence, roads and footpaths, and public transport services. The extent to which ‘Brexit’ will impact on the way these issues are dealt with, and ultimately on the work of DfI, is unknown and will depend entirely on the outcome of negotiations between the UK Government and the EU. The purpose of this paper is to briefly outline the influence of the EU on the work of the DfI and to highlight issues that may require further consideration.

Briefing Paper for the eighth meeting of the North/South Inter-Parliamentary Association. Paper 1: Impact of Brexit on Cross-Border Activity
This paper has been prepared to support the eighth meeting of the
North/South Inter-Parliamentary Association, which will address ‘the impact of Brexit on cross-border activity’. The paper provides an overview of the responses to the majority Leave vote of the government and legislature in each jurisdiction. It also provides background information on a range of issues upon which ‘Brexit’ may have impact across the island of Ireland. This list is not intended to be exhaustive and it is important to note that the implications of UK's withdrawal from EU can be assessed only once the terms of the withdrawal agreement from the EU are known. In particular, the future trade relationship between the UK and EU will impact significantly on trading relations across the jurisdictions.

Issues relating to public services Ombudsmen and the Police Ombudsman for Northern Ireland
This briefing paper has been prepared following a request from the Committee for the Executive Office. The Committee asked for information on the following; examples of Ombudsman’s offices which have been subject of investigation by another Ombudsman, and options for recourse which currently exist for those who are unhappy with the actions or reports of the Police Ombudsman for Northern Ireland.

Allied Health Professionals: Their role in healthcare reform and developing primary and community care
This briefing paper aims to provide an introduction to the range of professions under the Allied Health Professions umbrella (AHPs); the direction for and input from AHPs envisaged in each of the key healthcare reform reports for NI over the past decade; summary of evidence brought by AHPs to the Health Committee’s attention to date
(previous and current mandate) and a range of other workforce evidence relating to AHPs, including good practice examples and recommendations and a discussion of the positives and challenges of wider use of AHP staff and the development of extended roles for such staff.

Community Pharmacies
This Briefing Paper looks at recent health strategies in Northern Ireland that have led to a central role for Community Pharmacies in promoting health and wellbeing in their local communities, and in the delivery of primary care services to ease the growing pressures on GP surgeries and accident and emergency services. Three Community
Pharmacy initiatives are outlined; Building Community Pharmacy Partnerships (BCPP), placing pharmacists in GP surgeries, and the accreditation of ‘Health+Pharmacies’.

International Human Rights Standards: Recommendations Relating to Northern Ireland
The UK has obligations under international human rights instruments. The Treaty monitoring processes linked to these obligations generate issues for consideration in upholding international human rights standards and some of these observations are specific to Northern Ireland. This paper has been written to assist the Committee for the
Executive Office in its scrutiny role and it summarises Northern
Ireland-specific concluding observations of the various international monitoring bodies.

Licensing and Registration of Clubs (Amendment) Bill - Assessing the Costs
On 19 September 2016 the Licensing and Registration of Clubs (Amendment) Bill (the Bill) was introduced in the Assembly by the Minister of the Department for the Communities. This ‘Review of Bill
Costs’ aims to facilitate financial scrutiny of the Bill, as undertaken by the Assembly’s Committee for Communities and individual Members. The Review should be read in conjunction with RaISe Bill Paper NIAR 340-16 (14 November 2016), wherein policy issues are addressed.

Licensing and Registration of Clubs (Amendment) Bill (This paper has been temporarily withdrawn)
This Bill Paper provides an overview of the Licensing of Clubs (Amendment) Bill, as introduced to the Assembly on 19th September 2016. The paper identifies areas within the Bill which may benefit
from further scrutiny. Members may also wish to refer to a separate paper, Licensing and Registration of Clubs (Amendment) Bill – Assessing the Costs (NIAR 372-16) which provides a framework for financial scrutiny of the Bill.

The Executive’s Forthcoming Revised Economic Strategy for Northern Ireland: Preliminary Considerations [3.25mb]
This Research Paper was commissioned by the Committee for the Economy (CfE), to assist in the CfE’s scrutiny of the Executive’s
forthcoming revised Economic Strategy, once available.

International Relations Outside the European Union: Norway and Switzerland
This briefing paper has been prepared to support the Committee of the Executive Office in its scrutiny of the Executive in its actions in relation to the exit of the UK from the European Union. The paper takes two non-EU Member States in Europe – Norway and Switzerland – and examines how they interact with the EU and internationally.

Sentencing guidelines mechanisms in other jurisdictions
This research paper provides comparative information on sentencing guidelines schemes in a number of jurisdictions.

Selected causes of fatal and serious road traffic collisions in Northern Ireland
This Briefing Paper presents information on selected causes of fatal and serious road traffic collisions in Northern Ireland. This information was requested by the Committee for Infrastructure at
its meetings on 28 September 2016 and 05 October 2016. The paper presents data on fatal and serious road traffic collisions caused by the driver or rider being impaired by alcohol or by drugs; mobile phone use; vehicle defects and by distraction by action inside or outside the vehicle.

Forms of farm support/subsidy as operated in selected countries and associated conditions
This paper looks at the methods of agricultural support that are available to farmers within a number of countries around the world. Where possible, the paper also identifies any associated regulation that farmers are required to comply with in order to avail of the support.

Examples of UK environmental legislation which pre-date EU legislation
During a RaISe briefing to the Agriculture, Environment and Rural
Affairs Committee on Northern Ireland’s environment – background and potential ‘Brexit’ considerations (NIAR 262-16) long established UK environmental requirements pre-dating EU legislation were discussed. Members asked for further examples, and while not exhaustive, this briefing note attempts to identify a number of these.

Northern Ireland’s fisheries sectors – background and possible ‘Brexit’ considerations
This briefing paper provides contextual information on the sea and inland fisheries sectors within Northern Ireland, as well as exploring potential considerations for the sectors following on from the UK referendum decision to leave the European Union on 23rd June.

Health and Social Care in NI - Areas of EU Competence, Action and Support - Potential Areas of Impact on Health and Social Care as a result of EU Referendum Decision
Health care systems in EU member states are a matter of national responsibility and in the UK health and social care is a devolved matter. Therefore health is not an area of major EU competence and the role of the EU is largely to support member states to effectively deliver related policy and services. However, the result of the EU
referendum is not without potential impact in the health field for Northern Ireland. This briefing paper looks generally at EU competence in the area of health and also focuses on a selected range of specific areas that will require negotiation and resolution in the light of the result of the EU Referendum.

Diversity and Public Appointments in Northern Ireland
This Briefing Paper has been produced in the context of issues relating to diversity in public appointments raised in the Committee for Communities on 15 September 2016. The paper summarises the system for public appointments in Northern Ireland and outlines the profile of boards of public bodies.

Aarhus Convention
This briefing note is in response to a Committee request concerning the responsible body or depository of the Aarhus Convention.

Internet/broadband provision in rural Northern Ireland 
This briefing provides outline information on the level of internet and more specifically broadband provision within Northern Ireland (NI) as a whole, and also provides some rural specific analysis of the data.

Northern Ireland’s agri-food sector – background and possible ‘Brexit’ considerations
This briefing paper provides contextual information on the agriculture and food and drink processing sectors, as well as exploring potential considerations for the sectors following on from the UK referendum decision to leave the European Union on the 23rd June.

Budget 2016: Background Briefing for the Committee for Education 
This Briefing Paper provides background information on the Executive’s budget position, in support of the Committee for Education’s scrutiny of the Department of Education’s budget for 2017-18 to 2020-21. In particular, it provides contextual information about the level of resources allocated to Education over the last five years and raises some issues for consideration for the future budget.

Examining Best Practice in Road Safety Management
The purpose of this paper is to examine recent road safety policy interventions and wider environmental factors. It follows a recent RaISe publication on trends in road traffic collisions (NIAR 358-16). This paper will also provide an overview of approaches taken to road safety management in Sweden, the Netherlands and Denmark, which like the UK, are among world leaders in road safety.

Non-EU UK Treaty Obligations: An Overview
This paper has been compiled to support the Committee for the Executive Office in its consideration of the potential impacts for Northern Ireland of UK withdrawal from the European Union.

The Use of Business Cases in the Public Sector
This Research Paper is prepared at the request of the Committee for Finance, to inform its consideration of the use of Business Cases within the public sector in Northern Ireland. It outlines key aspects of the current guidance governing the preparation of such Business Cases. For a comparative perspective, it also highlights aspects of Business Case use by Government within the remainder of the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland.

‘What Works Centres’: An Overview of a Growing Network in Supporting Government and Potential Considerations for Northern Ireland
This Briefing Paper is prepared at the request of the Committee for Finance (the Committee), to facilitate its forward work planning for the first session of this new mandate. In particular, it aims to inform the Committee’s understanding of the Cabinet Office’s ‘What Works’ initiative.

Non-Domestic Rates in the United Kingdom
This briefing paper is prepared at the request of the Committee for Finance. It summarises key aspects of non-domestic rating policy and legislation throughout the United Kingdom, to facilitate the Committee’s deliberations in this area.

Northern Ireland’s environment - background and potential ‘Brexit’ considerations 
This paper considers some of the areas under environment that
may be impacted by leaving the European Union. It does this by identifying some of the main EU legislation in each area and briefly outlining how the legislation is transposed in Northern Ireland. It also notes possible questions for DAERA and the UK Government in light of the considerations raised.

Public procurement after the European Union referendum
This Briefing Paper summarises key elements of the European-derived public procurement rules as they apply in Northern Ireland. It also briefly presents what is currently known about future procurement regulation following the European Union (EU) referendum.

The re-classification of Housing Associations in England – implications for Northern Ireland
In October 2015, the Office for National Statistics announced that registered housing associations in England would be reclassified from Private Non-Financial Corporations to Public Non-Financial
Corporations for the purposes of the UK National Accounts. This paper provides an overview of the ONS decision on reclassification and its potential implications for Northern Ireland.

Arms-Length Bodies of the Executive Office
This paper summarises functional and financial aspects of the  following arms-length bodies under the responsibility of the Executive Office: The Community Relations Council; The Equality Commission for Northern Ireland; The Commission for Victims and Survivors; The Victims and Survivor Service. The paper briefly explains the role and function of each body and outlines costs associated with each, indicating administration and programme costs.

Outcomes-Based Government: Scrutiny of Outcomes
This paper has been compiled in the context of scrutiny by the Committee for the Executive Office of the outcomes-based approach of the Northern Ireland Programme for Government 2016-21. The paper builds on previous research regarding the model of outcomes-based government used by the Northern Ireland Executive.

Youth provision: a brief overview
This briefing note provides a short overview of youth provision in Northern Ireland. It is prepared to aid Committee for Education consideration of potential areas for inquiry, and is not intended to be comprehensive.

Underachievement: a brief overview
This briefing note considers underachievement in education in Northern Ireland. It provides a short overview of key issues in order to support the Committee for Education’s consideration of potential areas for inquiry, and is not intended to be comprehensive.

Special educational needs: a brief overview
This briefing note aims to provide a short overview of some of the key issues in relation to special educational needs (SEN) in Northern Ireland. It is prepared to support the Committee’s consideration of potential areas for inquiry, and is not intended to be comprehensive.

GCSEs and A levels: a brief overview
This briefing note provides a short overview of some of the key issues around GCSE and A level reform. It aims to support the Committee for Education’s consideration of potential areas for inquiry, and is not intended to be comprehensive.

Early years and children’s services: a brief overview
This paper considers early years education and care and children’s
services, and aims to support Committee for Education consideration of potential areas for inquiry. It is not intended to be comprehensive.

Academic selection: a brief overview
This Briefing Note considers academic selection in Northern Ireland. It is prepared to support Committee for Education consideration of inquiry topics, and is not intended to be comprehensive.

Possible models for the UK-EU relationship post ‘Brexit’
The exact nature of the relationship the UK and the EU will end up with remains unclear at this time and will be subject to potentially complex and protracted negotiations. This paper provides an overview of some of the most commonly cited potential alternatives open to the UK and EU and whilst the ultimate outcome may directly mirror one of these models or individual features within them, there could equally be potential for a bespoke UK-EU model. For the purposes of this paper the focus is on how each of the potential relationship models impact on issues relating to the environment, agriculture and fisheries within the context of EU regulation and single market access.

EU Referendum Update
The paper provides an update on developments following the EU referendum, held on 23 June 2016, in which a majority of voters across the UK voted for the UK to leave the EU. The paper focuses on developments in Northern Ireland and includes an overview of the
range of policy issues that departments might be expected to consider as they assess the potential impacts of UK withdrawal from the EU.

Programme for Government: Education
This research paper considers the Department of Education’s role in the current and previous Programmes for Government (PfG). It discusses the extent to which the Department met its commitments for the 2011-15 PfG, and considers the indicators and measures in the draft PfG for 2016-21.

Education system in Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland has a complex educational structure with a range of bodies involved in its management and administration. This briefing paper provides an overview of the education system from pre-school to post-primary education, including its structure, governance arrangements, school phases, management types and sectoral bodies.

Legislative and policy response to the risk of coastal erosion and flooding in the UK and Ireland  
This paper examines the policy response of the UK and Irish administrations to the threat of flooding and coastal erosion, and compares these to the approach being taken in Northern Ireland. This is presented in the context of current climate projections which indicate that climate change and natural land movements will cause rising sea levels and higher storm surges for UK coasts, increasing the risk of coastal erosion and flooding.

What do we know about homelessness in NI? An overview of some of the evidence-base
The purpose of this briefing paper is to provide an overview of recent research on homelessness in Northern Ireland. It is by no means exhaustive, rather its intention is to provide the Committee with a flavour of some of the existing and emerging issues.

Outcomes-based government
This briefing paper has been prepared for the Committee for the Executive Office which, in the context of its consideration of the Executive’s draft Programme for Government Framework 2016-21 (the draft PfG Framework), requested information on outcomes-based approaches to public governance in other jurisdictions.

Transforming Health and Social Care in Northern Ireland – Services and Governance
This briefing paper aims to provide the new Health Committee with an overview of a number of issues from the 2011-16 Committee’s
legacy report. It focuses on key aspects of health and social care reform in Northern Ireland over the past decade or so, including the 20-year strategy for primary care; ‘Transforming Your Care’ (TYC); the Donaldson Report; and the recently established expert panel, chaired by Professor Bengoa.

International Migration in Northern Ireland: an Update
Around 175,000 long-term international migrants are estimated to have arrived in Northern Ireland between 2000 and 2014. This paper, which contains recent statistics from the Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency (NISRA), updates a previous paper (February 2012) and describes the key elements of this remarkable demographic change.

Potential areas of interest for the Committee for Infrastructure
This paper provides members of the Committee for Infrastructure with an overview of the functions of the Department for Infrastructure, including an analysis of its budgetary allocations in 16/17 and beyond, a summary of some of the key issues from 2011-16 mandate relevant to the work of DfI, and an assessment of work streams the committee may wish to consider when preparing its forward work plan.

2016 Assembly Election: Transferred Votes
This briefing note provides information on how votes were transferred between parties at the 2016 Northern Ireland Assembly Election. It supplements the recently published Research and Information Service briefing paper on the 2016 Election results (NIA 141-16 – “Election
Report: Northern Ireland Assembly Election, 5 May 2016”).

Election Report: Northern Ireland Assembly Election, 5 May 2016
This paper provides an analysis of the Northern Ireland Assembly elections held on 5 May 2016, and compares the outcome with the 2011 election.  The paper also includes an analysis of voter turnout and results by party and constituency.  The statistics were extracted from figures published by the Electoral Office for Northern Ireland and the BBC.

The new Assembly – what next?
The first sitting of the new Assembly will take place on Thursday 12 May 2016. This paper briefly outlines the arrangements for the election of the Speaker, the Roll of Membership, the Programme for Government and the appointment of Ministers in the coming weeks.

The EU Referendum and Northern Ireland: Information Resources (updated 20 May 2016)
This purpose of this document, which may be updated as appropriate, is to provide Members with a list of information resources which address the potential impacts on Northern Ireland of a decision by the UK to leave the European Union. For political, economic, geographic and social reasons, these impacts might be expected to differ in important ways from the impact of withdrawal on other parts of the UK.

Economic impact of cuts to the Higher Education Sector
This briefing paper is prepared for the Committee for Employment and Learning to consider key potential economic impacts of the Executive’s budget reductions for to Northern Ireland’s Higher Education Sector. It considers the impact at both individual and economy levels using available information and data relating to
university public financing, student numbers and graduate supply.

Special school funding
This Briefing Paper is prepared to support the Committee for Education’s consideration of special school funding. The evidence points to a trend towards delegating more responsibilities to schools for special educational needs (SEN) provision, in line with a wider
trend towards giving schools greater autonomy in general.

Dáil Election Results 2016 by Gender
This note briefly summarises the results of the election to Dáil
Éireann held on 26 February 2016. The note supplements the previous paper Candidates for the 2016 Dáil Election by Gender and tracks the degree of gender representation for the 32nd Dáil.

Female Members of the Northern Ireland Assembly 1998-2016
This paper briefly summarises the presence of female Members of the
Legislative Assembly (MLAs) in the Northern Ireland Assembly. The paper covers current and past female MLAs. The information given in this paper updates the previous paper Women in the Northern Ireland Assembly. The information cut-off date is 1 February 2016.

NIRDP 2007-13 – Progress made since mid-term evaluation and overview of issues/difficulties with the Programme
This briefing paper provides an overview of the progress made over the course of the delivery of the 2007-13 Northern Ireland Rural Development Programme. The paper draws particular attention to the mid-term review of the programme carried out in 2010 and the mid-term evaluation update issued in 2013, highlighting issues and
associated recommendations for action identified in both of these key documents.

Overview of the beef sector/suckler cow industry in Northern Ireland
This paper provides an overview of the beef sector/suckler cow industry in Northern Ireland. As well as providing details on the size of the size of the industry this paper considers issues relating to the income and the connections between different sectors of the industry.

Smoking in private vehicles carrying children
In February 2016, Members of the Northern Ireland Assembly voted in favour of an amendment contained within the Health (Miscellaneous Provisions) Bill (2015) to ban anyone from smoking in private vehicles (such as cars) carrying children. This paper explores the health risks associated with exposure of children to second-hand smoke, and the dangers posed by smoke toxins in private vehicles;
the use of legislation and policy to change people’s behaviour; arguments for and against the introduction of a ban; the position in Northern Ireland - compared with the rest of the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, which have recently introduced similar bans; and if there is any evidence from elsewhere regarding the efficacy of smoking bans in private vehicles carrying children.

Candidates for the 2016 Dáil Election by Gender
In the Republic of Ireland, Section 42 of the Electoral (Amendment)
(Political Funding) Act 2012 provides for the financial punishment of political parties that do not have 30% of either sex standing as candidates in the next election, and 40% of either sex in any election after seven years from the first election, by a 50% reduction in state funding. This paper briefly considers the impact of this legislation on the appointment of candidates for the Dáil elections to be held on 26 February 2016.

Allocation of Ministers in the Northern Ireland Executive and Committee Chairpersons and deputy Chairpersons in the Northern Ireland Assembly 1998-2016
This briefing note contains information on the selection of Ministerial posts by political parties since the first Executive formed under
the terms of the Northern Ireland Act 1998. It also provides tables outlining the allocation of Chairs and Deputy Chairs in each mandate since the first Assembly and places these alongside the relevant Minister.

Background, overview and progress on Going for Growth – June 2015
This paper provides an overview of the key elements of the Going for Growth Action Plan, the current state/health of the agri-food sector,
and an assessment of the performance of DARD and DETI in relation to actual implementation of particular recommendations/actions identified within Going for Growth.

The ‘Going for Growth’ agri-food strategy – comparison with similar strategies/documents in neighbouring jurisdictions
This briefing paper provides an overview of the main elements within Going for Growth and also compares the report with similar reports from neighbouring jurisdictions.

The Going for Growth strategic action plan – how much is ‘new’?
The Agri-food Strategy Board formally launched their strategic action
plan, titled ‘Going For Growth’ at the 2013 Balmoral Show. The 118
recommendations that make up the Going for Growth action plan, are presented on a thematic (7 themes with 62 recommendations) and sectoral basis (10 sectors with 56 recommendations). This briefing paper attempts to determine how many of the 118 targets within Going for Growth are ‘new’.

The EU referendum and potential implications for Northern Ireland
This paper examines the debate surrounding the EU referendum and the potential implications of that vote on Northern Ireland, focusing on trade and investment.
(Addendum to this paper published 26/05/17)

River pollution in Northern Ireland: An overview of causes and monitoring systems, with examples of preventative measures
This paper examines the potential causes of river pollution, pollution monitoring systems in place in Northern Ireland, as well as some examples of preventative measures trialled both here and in other jurisdictions. It has been produced following a request by the Environment Committee to contribute to their preparations for a
stakeholder event on River Pollution.

Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) in 2015
This research paper is prepared for the Committee for Education to
support its consideration of science, technology, engineering and maths (STEM).  It considers progress against a number of areas highlighted in the 2011 Success through STEM Strategy in 2011

Houses in Multiple Occupation Bill
The Houses in Multiple Occupation Bill was introduced to the Assembly by the Minister for Social Development on 7 September 2015. The purpose of the Bill is to enable better regulation of Houses in Multiple Occupation (HMOs) by introducing a new licensing system. This paper provides an overview of the clauses of the Bill; the policy context behind the new regulatory framework; and explores the regulation of HMOs in other jurisdictions.

Overview of Cross Compliance Standards and Inspection processes utilised by DARD and NIEA
This paper provides a brief overview of cross compliance, the associated standards and the actual process of inspection within Northern Ireland.

Assembly Members (Reduction of Numbers) Bill 2016
This paper provides background to the legislation to reduce the number of members of the Assembly. It looks at how the Bill might impact on the ability of Assembly members to effectively carry out their parliamentary duties.

Licensing Bill
This paper provides a briefing on the proposed Private Members’ Bill concerning the licensing and sale of alcohol at outdoor stadia.

Addressing Bullying in Schools Bill: Views of Young People
This Research Paper presents findings from a series of focus groups conducted to support the Committee for Education’s scrutiny of the Addressing Bullying in Schools Bill.

Comparison of the planning systems in the four UK countries
This paper describes and compares aspects of the current land use planning systems operating in the four UK countries. In particular, given the changes introduced by the UK Coalition Government (2010-2015) and by the devolved administrations, it compares the extent to which the four planning systems now differ from each other. It also describes further changes for each country that are in the pipeline.

Executive Budget 2016-17: Potential Lines of Questioning 
As part of a four-part series, this Briefing Paper aims to facilitate Assembly scrutiny of the Executive Budget 2016-17, both in plenary and statutory committees.  Drawing on previous papers in the series, this Paper sets out potential lines of questioning, which seek to ensure the Executive duly considers Northern Ireland’s socio-economic context in its budget allocation decisions, so that departmental ministers are better placed when making decisions about policy and spending throughout 2016-17 and thereafter.  (Paper 4 or 4)

Executive Budget 2016-17: Departmental Allocations
As part of a four-part series on the Executive Budget 2016-17, this Briefing Paper presents tables (Tables 1-3) and graphs (Figures 1-5) to illustrate departmental allocations outlined in the Minister of Finance and Personnel’s Written Statement on 17 December 2015. Key observations about those tables and figures are noted as far as possible, given current unknowns arising from the departmental restructuring, which will reduce departments from 12 to 9. Amongst those unknowns are future decisions that are to be taken by the Executive, such as those relating to the total resources that are to be held in ‘Central Funds’. For more information on departmental restructuring, refer to RaISe Briefing Papers NIAR 714-15, dated 6 January 2016 and NIAR 780-12, dated 17 October 2012. (Paper 3 of 4)

Restructuring Northern Ireland Departments: Machinery of Government Changes
As part of a four-part series on the Executive Budget 2016-17, this
Briefing Paper seeks to inform the context in which the Executive has made allocations. It addresses on-going government restructuring and changes to arise from it, which impact on the Executive’s budgetary decisions for the forthcoming financial year. The Paper also seeks to facilitate the Assembly’s financial scrutiny of the Departments Bill (the Bill), currently progressing through the Assembly. (Paper 2 of 4)

Executive Budget 2016-17: Northern Ireland Economic Context
As part of a four-part series, this Briefing Paper seeks to inform the Assembly’s scrutiny of the Executive Budget 2016-17. It outlines key aspects of the Northern Ireland economic context, which merit consideration when assessing the Executive’s priorities and related allocations in its Budget 2016-17. (Paper 1 of 4)